Ecological Factors at a Fine Spatial Scale Influencing Leopard (Panthera pardus) Habitat Use in the Bardia–Banke Complex, Nepal

Conservation of large carnivores like leopard requires the clear knowledge of the spatial ecology of leopards (Panthera pardus), especially in larger and interconnected habitats to inform effective conservation planning. Here, we assessed leopard habitat use across Bardia–Banke Complex (BBC), Nepal, using single-season occupancy models from 405 camera trap stations deployed over 7423 trap nights. We conducted the camera trap survey from December 2020 to June 2021 in 4 sq.km grids. We prepared the detection history (detection/non-detection) record of leopard and then evaluated the impact of the selected 10 plausible ecological and anthropogenic covariates on leopard occupancy. Our analysis revealed that prey availability, distance to human settlements, and rivers were the key determinants of leopard's habitat use. The model-averaged leopard occupancy was estimated at 0.55 (SE ± 0.134), with higher use in prey-rich zones and forest fringes, and distance from the riparian area suggesting spatial displacement from core habitats. Detection probability varied significantly by camera model, with Browning cameras outperforming others. These findings highlight the leopard's ecological plasticity and its persistence in human-modified landscapes, underscoring the need for an integrated conservation approach that maintains prey base, secures ecological corridors, and addresses conflict mitigation around the parks.